2.分子的熱運(yùn)動(dòng)
物體里的分子永不停息地做無(wú)規(guī)則運(yùn)動(dòng),這種運(yùn)動(dòng)跟溫度有關(guān),所以通常把分子的這種運(yùn)動(dòng)叫做熱運(yùn)動(dòng)。
(1)擴(kuò)散現(xiàn)象和布朗運(yùn)動(dòng)都可以很好地證明分子的熱運(yùn)動(dòng)。
(2)布朗運(yùn)動(dòng)是指懸浮在液體中的固體微粒的無(wú)規(guī)則運(yùn)動(dòng)。關(guān)于布朗運(yùn)動(dòng),要注意以下幾點(diǎn):①形成條件是:只要微粒足夠小。②溫度越高,布朗運(yùn)動(dòng)越激烈。③觀察到的是固體微粒(不是液體,不是固體分子)的無(wú)規(guī)則運(yùn)動(dòng),反映的是液體分子運(yùn)動(dòng)的無(wú)規(guī)則性。④實(shí)驗(yàn)中描繪出的是某固體微粒每隔30秒的位置的連線,不是該微粒的運(yùn)動(dòng)軌跡。
(3)為什么微粒越小,布朗運(yùn)動(dòng)越明顯?可以這樣分析:在任何一個(gè)選定的方向上,同一時(shí)刻撞擊固體微粒的液體分子個(gè)數(shù)與微粒的橫截面積成正比,即與微粒的線度r的平方成正比,從而對(duì)微粒的撞擊力的合力F與微粒的線度r的平方成正比;而固體微粒的質(zhì)量m與微粒的體積成正比,即與微粒的線度r的立方成正比,因此其加速度A=F/m∝r–1,即加速度與微粒線度r成反比。所以微粒越小,運(yùn)動(dòng)狀態(tài)的改變?cè)娇,布朗運(yùn)動(dòng)越明顯。
對(duì)布朗運(yùn)動(dòng)產(chǎn)生過(guò)程的分析有如下特點(diǎn)應(yīng)加以注意。
(1)在排除了外界影響后,從流體內(nèi)部找原因。
(2)提出了“液體分子”這個(gè)物理模型,并認(rèn)為分子總處于永不停息的無(wú)規(guī)則運(yùn)動(dòng)中。同時(shí),要把液體分子視做彈性小球,在跟固體微粒碰撞的過(guò)程中動(dòng)能守恒。
(3)認(rèn)為大量分子碰撞固體微粒時(shí),某一瞬間,固體微粒各方向所受液體分子的沖力,對(duì)于體積小的固體微粒表現(xiàn)出明顯的不平衡性。正是這種不平衡性,產(chǎn)生了布朗運(yùn)動(dòng)。
在這里,提出科學(xué)假說(shuō),建立物理模型,通過(guò)宏觀實(shí)驗(yàn),進(jìn)行分析推理以得出微觀結(jié)構(gòu)及其運(yùn)動(dòng)特點(diǎn)的方法,對(duì)于得出正確結(jié)論是重要的。
同時(shí),大量分子對(duì)固體微粒碰撞的沖力的不平衡性,沖力合力的方向的不確定性,還體現(xiàn)出新的規(guī)律性。這種反映大量分子永不停息的無(wú)規(guī)則運(yùn)動(dòng)的整體規(guī)律,稱之為統(tǒng)計(jì)規(guī)律。
熱學(xué)是物理學(xué)的一個(gè)組成部分,它研究的是熱現(xiàn)象的規(guī)律。描述熱現(xiàn)象的一個(gè)基本概念是溫度。凡是跟溫度有關(guān)的現(xiàn)象都叫做熱現(xiàn)象。分子動(dòng)理論是從物質(zhì)微觀結(jié)構(gòu)的觀點(diǎn)來(lái)研究熱現(xiàn)象的理論。它的基本內(nèi)容是:物體是由大量分子組成的;分子永不停息地做無(wú)規(guī)則運(yùn)動(dòng);分子間存在著相互作用力。
1.物體是由大量分子組成的
這里的分子是指構(gòu)成物質(zhì)的單元,可以是原子、離子,也可以是分子。在熱運(yùn)動(dòng)中它們遵從相同的規(guī)律,所以統(tǒng)稱為分子。
(1)這里建立了一個(gè)理想化模型:把分子看作是小球,所以求出的數(shù)據(jù)只在數(shù)量級(jí)上是有意義的。一般認(rèn)為分子直徑大小的數(shù)量級(jí)為10-10m。
(2)固體、液體被理想化地認(rèn)為各分子是一個(gè)挨一個(gè)緊密排列的,每個(gè)分子的體積就是每個(gè)分子平均占有的空間。分子體積=物體體積÷分子個(gè)數(shù)。
(3)氣體分子仍視為小球,但分子間距離較大,不能看作一個(gè)挨一個(gè)緊密排列,所以氣體分子的體積遠(yuǎn)小于每個(gè)分子平均占有的空間。每個(gè)氣體分子平均占有的空間看作以相鄰分子間距離為邊長(zhǎng)的正立方體。
(4)阿伏加德羅常數(shù)NA=6.02×1023mol-1,是聯(lián)系微觀世界和宏觀世界的橋梁。它把物質(zhì)的摩爾質(zhì)量、摩爾體積這些宏觀物理量和分子質(zhì)量、分子體積這些微觀物理量聯(lián)系起來(lái)了。
[例題1]根據(jù)水的密度為ρ=1.0×103kg/m3和水的摩爾質(zhì)量M=1.8×10-2kg,,利用阿伏加德羅常數(shù),估算水分子的質(zhì)量和水分子的直徑。
解:每個(gè)水分子的質(zhì)量m=M/NA=1.8×10-2÷6.02×1023=3.0×10-26kg;水的摩爾體積V=M/ρ,把水分子看作一個(gè)挨一個(gè)緊密排列的小球,則每個(gè)分子的體積為v=V/NA,而根據(jù)球體積的計(jì)算公式,用d表示水分子直徑,v=4πr3/3=πd3/6,得d=4×10-10m
[例題2]利用阿伏加德羅常數(shù),估算在標(biāo)準(zhǔn)狀態(tài)下相鄰氣體分子間的平均距離D。
解:在標(biāo)準(zhǔn)狀態(tài)下,1mol任何氣體的體積都是V=22.4L,除以阿伏加德羅常數(shù)就得每個(gè)氣體分子平均占有的空間,該空間的大小是相鄰氣體分子間平均距離D的立方。
,即:,這個(gè)數(shù)值大約是分子直徑的10倍。因此水氣化后的體積大約是液體體積的1000倍。
小結(jié):估算中需要利用已知的恒量,同時(shí),采用適當(dāng)?shù)哪P褪侵匾摹R话阌?jì)算分子占有空間大小的問(wèn)題中,以取立方體為宜,特別是固體。但無(wú)論取球或立方體模型,計(jì)算結(jié)果的數(shù)量級(jí)相同。此題若取球模型,在保留1位有效數(shù)字時(shí),結(jié)果的數(shù)量級(jí)是相同的,只是有效數(shù)字為4。
Sometimes I really doubt whether there is 46 between my parents. Every day they are
very 47 trying to earn money in order to pay the high tuition for my brother and me. They don’t act in the 48 ways that I read in books or I see on TV. In their opinion, “I love you” is too luxurious(奢侈的)for them to say. Sending flowers to each other on Valentine’s Day is even more 49 . Finally my father has a bad temper. When he’s very tired from the hard work, it is easy for him to lose his 50 .
One day, my mother was sewing a quilt. I silently sat down beside her .
“Mom, I have a question to ask you.”
“What?”
“Is there love between you and Dad?”
My mother stopped her work and 51 her head with 52 in her eyes. She didn’t answer
Immediately.
I was very 53 because I thought I had hurt her. I was in a great embarrassment and I didn’t know what to do. But 54 I heard my mother’s words: “Susan,” she said thoughtfully, “Look at this thread. Sometimes it appears, but most of it 55 in the quilt. The thread really makes the quilt strong and durable. If life is a quilt, then love should be a thread. It can 56 be seen anywhere or anytime, but it’s really 57 . love is inside.”
I listened carefully but I couldn’t understand her 58 the next spring, when my father suddenly got dick seriously. My mother had to stay with him in the 59 for a month. When they returned from the hospital, it seemed both of them had had a serious illness.
After that, every day in the morning and 60 , my mother helped my father walk slowly on the country road. It seemed they were the most harmonious 61 .
The doctor has said my father would 62 in two months. But after two months he still couldn’t walk by himself. All of us were worried about him.
“Dad, how are you feeling now?” I asked him one day.
“Susan, don’t worry about me.” To tell you the truth, I just like walking with your mom. I like this kind of life. 63 his eyes, I know he loves my mother deeply.
Once I thought love meant flowers, gifts and sweet 64 . But from this experience, I understand that love is just a thread in the quilt of our 65 . Love is inside, making life strong and warm.
46.A. love B.relation C.a(chǎn) similarity D.time
47.A.lucky B.busy C.glad D.disappointed
48.A.romantic B.normal C.hard D.special
49.A.possible B.impossible C.imaginative D.possibility
50.A.heart B.way C.temper D.mind
51.A.raised B.looked down C.dropped D.rose
52.A.surprise B.excitement C.humor D.a(chǎn)nger
53.A.excited B.tired C.surprised D.worried
54.A.a(chǎn)t first B.a(chǎn)t last C.before D.a(chǎn)fter
55.A.a(chǎn)ppears B.finds C.disappears D.sees
56.A.easily B.hardly C.often D.usually
57.A.that B.here C.there D.this
58.A.in B.for C.before D.until
59.A.home B.factory C.bed D.hospital
60.A.night B.noon C.dusk D.dawn
61.A.family B.people C.couple D.friends
62.A.rescue B.recover C.die D.save
63.A.Reading B.Looking C.Understanding D.Thinking
64.A.looks B.kisses C.foods D.walks
65.A.mind B.heart C.life D.world
45. our earth, or else it will be no longer fit for us to live on.
A.Protected B.To protect C.Protecting D.protect
44. is smoking allowed here in the lecture hall.
A.At no time B.In no time C.At one time D.At a time
43.The news has spread all over the country the spaceship succeeded in returning.
A.that B.which C.whether D.what
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